Brand Hate Scale

Abstract

The Brand Hate Scale (Akrout & Mrad, 2023) was developed for the purpose of investigating the emerging concept of brand hate, defined as strong negative affective responses from consumers due to negative brand experiences (Roy et al., 2021). This research was conducted in a cross-cultural context, utilizing data collected from France, the UK, and the US. The scale is two-dimensional and exists in both Emic (country-specific) and Etic (common items) versions. The rigorous scale construction process involved several stages: defining brand hate, generating initial items, purifying the scale, and finally, validating it. The nomological network was also presented. Initially, a pool of 42 items was generated. This pool was subsequently reduced after reviews for clarity and face validity, and further refined through Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). This comprehensive process resulted in a measurement model for the Emic scale, comprising 7 items for the US, 7 for the UK, and 9 for France, and a 6-item model for the Etic scale. The reliability, validity, and measurement invariance results for both measurement models were thoroughly documented.

Keywords

Consumer–Brand Relationship; Cross-Cultural Assessment; Cross-Cultural Differences; Emic Scale; Etic Scale; Face Validity; Feeling of Aversion; Feeling of Deep Resentment; Nomological Network; Aversion; Brand Preferences; Consumer Attitudes; Cross Cultural Differences; Customer Relationship Management; Hate; Hostility; Cross Cultural Test Adaptation; Consumer Measures

Authors

Akrout, Houcine; Mrad, Mona

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Purpose

The primary objective of this measure is to conduct a cross-cultural assessment of consumers’ self-reported brand hate. The construct of brand hate is conceptually defined as “a form of enduring negative sentiment that includes consumer’s feeling of deep resentment and consumer’s feeling of aversion.” This scale is designed to be a valuable tool for brand practitioners, enabling them to monitor the consumer–brand relationship effectively and, ultimately, to prevent a negative downward spiral in this crucial relationship.

Validity

Convergent Validity: The average variance extracted (AVE) for both dimensions in all three samples (France, UK, US) consistently exceeded the recommended threshold value of 0.50 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981), providing robust evidence of convergent validity.

Discriminant Validity: Across all samples, the AVEs for both dimensions were found to be higher than the squared correlation involving those dimensions. This outcome demonstrates adequate discriminant validity between the scale’s dimensions.

Nomological Network: The Brand Hate Scale underwent rigorous testing within a nomological network of theoretically related antecedents and consequences. The results of this testing unequivocally indicated that the hypothesized antecedents, specifically trust erosion and perceived unethicality, were significantly linked with brand hate. Furthermore, the hypothesized consequences, namely brand avoidance and protest/boycott behaviors, also demonstrated a significant association with brand hate. This provides strong support for the scale’s nomological validity.

Test Validity: The test validity was established through convergent validity, discriminant validity, nomological validity, and predictive validity.

Reliability

Composite Reliability: The composite reliability for each dimension across all sampled populations (France, UK, US) consistently surpassed the recommended cut-off level of 0.60 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981), indicating satisfactory internal consistency and reliability of the scale’s dimensions.

Internal Consistency: No data is Available

Factor Analysis

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA): An EFA was conducted on an initial set of 21 items, which were derived from a comprehensive literature review and a qualitative study. Through a meticulous item selection process, several items were removed, ultimately yielding a clear two-factor structure. These two factors collectively accounted for a substantial portion of the total variation in the data set: 77.5% for the French sample, 78% for the US sample, and 78% for the UK sample.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA): A CFA was performed on the items with the two dimensions identified during the EFA phase. Following necessary adjustments, the model fit indices for both the Etic (common items) and Emic (country-specific) scales were deemed satisfactory, providing evidence of a good fit between the hypothesized factor structure and the observed data.

Measurement Invariance: A metric invariance analysis was undertaken specifically for the Etic scales. This analysis is crucial for determining whether the strengths of the relationships between certain items in a scale and their relevant dimensions are consistent across different markets (Steenkamp & Baumgartner, 1998). The results of this analysis clearly indicated that the factor structure of the Etic scale can be considered invariant across the three countries (France, UK, US), supporting its cross-cultural applicability.

Instrument

• Test Type: Original, Inventory/Questionnaire

• Format: Items are rated using a Likert-type scale ranging from “I totally Disagree” (1) to “I totally Agree” (7). The administration method is electronic.

• Language Available: English.

• Population Group: Human; Male; Female.

• Age Group: Adulthood (18 yrs & older); Young Adulthood (18-29 yrs); Thirties (30-39 yrs); Middle Age (40-64 yrs); Aged (65 yrs & older).

• Population Details: The study involved consumers from the United States, the United Kingdom, and France.

• Test Methodology: Test Validity, Convergent Validity, Discriminant Validity, Nomological Validity, Predictive Validity, Test Reliability, Internal Consistency, Factor Analysis, Confirmatory Factor Analysis, Exploratory Factor Analysis, Measurement Invariance, Measurement Model.

Keywords

Brand Hate; Consumer–Brand Relationship; Cross-Cultural Assessment; Cross-Cultural Differences; Emic Scale; Etic Scale; Face Validity; Feeling of Aversion; Feeling of Deep Resentment; Nomological Network; Aversion; Brand Preferences; Consumer Attitudes; Cross Cultural Differences; Customer Relationship Management; Hate; Hostility; Cross Cultural Test Adaptation; Consumer Measures.

Authors

• Akrout, Houcine

  • Affiliation: Inseec Grande Ecole Omnes Education Group

  • Email Address: [email protected]

  • Correspondence Address: Inseec Grande Ecole, 27 avenue Vellefaux, Paris, France, 75010, [email protected]

  • ORCID Identifier: No data is Available

• Mrad, Mona

  • Affiliation: American University of Sharjah

  • Email Address: No data is Available

  • Correspondence Address: No data is Available

  • ORCID Identifier: orcid.org/0000-0002-4775-8519

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

• Permissions: May use for Research/Teaching.

• Fee: No.

• Commercial Use: No.

• Test Year: 2023.

References

Akrout, H., & Mrad, M. (2023). Measuring brand hate in a cross-cultural context: Emic and Etic scale development and validation. Journal of Business Research, 154, Article 113289. doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.08.053

Items of the Brand Hate Scale

• Number of items: The Emic (country-specific) scales consist of 7 items for the US, 7 for the UK, and 9 items for France. The Etic (common items) scale comprises 6 items.

• Test Items Available: Yes.

• Test Location: 2023-20026-001, Table 3, Page 7.

• Factors and Subscales: The Brand Hate Scale is structured around two primary factors:

  • Feeling of Aversion

  • Feeling of Deep Resentment

Brand Hate Scale

U.S. Sample

Feeling of Aversion

• BH3- I detest brand X.

• BH9- I manage to keep brand X away from my life.

• BH11- Brand X irritates me.

Feeling of Deep Resentment

• BH16- I am disgusted by brand X.

• BH17- I do not tolerate brand X and its company.

• BH18- The world would be a better place without brand X.

• BH20- I feel ashamed of brand X.

U.K. Sample

Feeling of Aversion

• BH3- I detest brand X.

• BH9- I manage to keep brand X away from my life.

• BH11- Brand X irritates me.

Feeling of Deep Resentment

• BH16- I am disgusted by brand X.

• BH17- I do not tolerate brand X and its company.

• BH18- The world would be a better place without brand X.

• BH20- I feel ashamed of brand X.

French Sample

Feeling of Aversion

• BH3- I detest brand X.

• BH8- I refuse to have anything related to brand X.

• BH9- I manage to keep brand X away from my life.

• BH10- I refuse to use products that others offer me from brand X.

• BH11- Brand X irritates me.

Feeling of Deep Resentment

• BH15- Brand X makes me feel resentful.

• BH16- I am disgusted by brand X.

• BH17- I do not tolerate brand X and its company.

• BH18- The world would be a better place without brand X.

Note: Presented above are the Emic (country-specific) scales of the Brand Hate Scale. There is also a 6-item Etic (common items) scale: BH3, BH9, BH11, BH16, BH17, BH18. Items are rated using a Likert-type scale ranging from “I totally Disagree” (1) to “I totally Agree” (7).